Constitutional Interpretation and our Supreme Court: A Critical Appreciation

The supreme court of Bangladesh is charged with duty to protect and uphold the Constitution of Bangladesh, and thereby it also functions as the guardian and interpreter of our constitution. In other words, it is one of the major functions of the honourable Supreme Court to interpret and construct the constitution in order to meet the needs of changing conditions of our society, as to make it a living constitution.

The power to interpret the constitution is not explicitly provided in any provision of our constitution. This authority to interpret the constitution is actually derived from the power of judicial review, which is conferred upon the court by our constitution under article 102. Moreover, according to article 7(2) of the Constitution, if any law is made inconsistent with any provision of constitution, that law shall to the extent of such inconsistency be void. In true sense, that law shall be declared void by the Supreme Court, if it considers the Law as inconsistent with any provision of the constitution. This power gives the court an implied authority to interpret the constitution.

The supreme court of Bangladesh has been playing a very active role in the interpretation of our constitution since the emergence of Bangladesh. Lots of unique and noble interpretations of the constitution were given by our Supreme Court the through pronouncement of many leading judgments in many cases. There are some settled rules and theories for interpretation of the constitution, followed by the judges and jurists throughout the world. The judges of the supreme court of Bangladesh also kept those rules and theories in their minds while interpreting the constitution. But in no cases the judges did clearly mention the particular theory to which they belong. This work is an attempt to concentrate on the forms, shapes and the basis of some of those remarkable interpretations, evaluating the merits of their theorization by the Supreme Court.

Some principal rules for constitutional interpretations 

Now here before going to the crux of this work, I would like to define some established rules for constitutional interpretations.

Originalist: An originalist is a person who believes that the meaning of the constitution does not change or evolve over time, but rather that the meaning of the text is both fixed and knowable. An originalist believes that the fixed meaning of the text should be the sole guide for a judge when applying or interpreting a constitutional provision.

Textualist: A textualist is an originalist who gives primary weight to the text and structure of the Constitution. The text means what it would have been understood to mean by an ordinary person at the time it was written. Textualists often are skeptical of the ability of judges to determine collective “intent.”

Intentionalist: An intentionalist is an originalist who gives primary weight to the intentions of framers, members of proposing bodies, and ratifiers.

Pragmatist: A non-originalist who gives substantial weight to judicial precedent or the consequences of alternative interpretations, so as to sometimes favor a decision “wrong” on originalist terms because it promotes stability or in some other way promotes the public good.

Natural Law Theorist: A person who believes that higher moral law ought to trump inconsistent positive law.

Equitable interpretation: It means decisions taken on the basis of an innate sense of justice, balancing the interests of the parties, and what is right and wrong, regardless of what the written law might provide. It is often resorted to in cases in which the facts were not adequately anticipated or provided for by the lawgivers.

Constitutional interpretation in some leading cases

Dr. Mohiuddin farooqi v. Bangladesh, 1997. 49 DLR

In the famous case of Dr. Mohiuddin Farooqi v. Bangladesh, which is known as locus standi case, the court added a wider meaning of the term ‘person aggrieved’ while interpreting the article 102 the constitution. Before the pronouncement of locus standi case, only the person affected directly could move to the Supreme Court for enforcement of any fundamental right guaranteed in the constitution, under article 102 of constitution. But in the locus standi case of 1997 the court has given a more liberal interpretation oh term ‘person aggrieved’.
It was held in the said case, ‘if a fundamental right is involved, the impugned matter need not affect a purely personal right of the applicant touching him alone. It is enough if he shares that right in common with others’
After this milestone judgment, in case of public wrong, any person of the society on behalf of Public at large, rather than only the person aggrieved personally could move the court for enforcement of Fundamental rights.

So, in this case the court did not take the narrow literal meaning of the Term ‘aggrieved’, rather the court showed a non-originalist approach to constitutional interpretation, coming out from its old narrow meaning to meet the needs of society and for public good. Because, if the court took the old narrow meaning of the term ‘aggrieved’, many of those who do not have the access to court and whose rights have been violated, would remain outside the shadow of justice and they could not seek remedy for their losses. Taking into consideration the consequences of the old restricted interpretation, the court went for wider meaning of the term ‘aggrieved’. As a result, now the people having no Locus standi could go for enforcement of fundamental rights standing on behalf of common people. This type of interpretation is also called pragmatism, which is actually a branch of non-originalism. But interestingly in terms of this judgment the court mentioned that they are belonging to that particular theory of interpretation and the judges did not specify the particular theory by which they are abide by.

Anawar Hossain Chowdhury v. Bangladesh, 1989. 41 DLR
This is one of the land mark decisions ever pronounced by our Supreme Court, which is known as the 8th amendment case. In this case, the judges have given a totally new interpretation of article 142 of our constitution. Before insertion of article 7B by the 15th amendment Act in 2011, neither there was any specific provision regarding the basic structure of the constitution nor any provision regarding unamendability of those basic structures. The concept of basic structure was first introduced by the court in this 8th amendment case by giving an exclusive interpretation of term ‘Amendment’ in article 142.

As Justice Shahbuddin Ahmed said, “Amendment is a change or alteration, for the purpose of bringing an improvement in the statute to make it more effective and meaningful, but it does not mean its abrogation or destruction or a change resulting in the loss of its original identity and character”.

So, in this case the court followed the originalist theory while interpreting the article 142. As the court tried to find the original meaning of the term ‘amendment’ from the text of the statute and the structure of the constitution. Keeping similarity with the earlier mentioned case the court did not specify the particular theory which they are belonging to.

KUDRAT-E-ELAHI PANIR V. BANGLADESH, 44 DLR

In this case, Justice Naimuddin Ahmed has given a unique interpretation of article 8(2) of the constitution. According to his opinion, the phrase ‘shall not be judicially enforceable’ shall not prevent the court from declaring any law as void on the ground of it’s being made in clear violation of fundamental principles of state policy. According to his statement, article 7(2) is not in conflict with article 8(2) of our constitution. He tried to make a distinction between enforceability and inconsistency. So, if any law is directly contrary to any provision any of the fundamental principles of state policy, the law may be declared void in spite of the non-enforceability clause of article 8(2) of the constitution. According to his lordship: “the constitution makers were conscious that implementation of the noble principles laid down in part II may not be possible in the prevailing socio-economic condition of the country and as such , they very wisely enacted article 8(2) making these principles unenforceable through courts, but, that by no means, implies that the constitution-makers intended to circumvent the mandate of article 7(2) and permit the legislature to enact laws in violation of those principles.” As such an enactment made by parliament in opposition to, and in derogation of the principles laid down in part II of the constitution is violative of the mandate provided in article 7(2) of the constitution and therefore, void.

However, in this case the court took an originalist view, as the judges tried to discover the original meaning of the said term from the structure of the constitution. Because, a Sharpe analysis of all the provisions of the constitution and how they are apparently intended to function as a harmonious system, lead us to the above mentioned meaning of Judicial enforceability.

But not a single statement could be found in the whole judgment which specify the theory which has been followed by the court in course of this interpretation.

Sheikh Abdus Sabur v. Returning officer, district education officer in charge, Gopalganj and others, 41 DLR (AD) 1989 (30)

In this famous case, appeallate division has given a wider meaning of the Term ‘equality before law’ while interpreting article 27 of the constitution. It was held by the court that, ‘‘all citizens are equal before law and are entitled to equal protection of law. Equality before law does not mean absolute equality and is not be interpreted in its absolute sense, to hold that all people are equal in all respects disregarding different conditions and circumstances or special qualities and characteristics, which some of them may possess but which are lacking in others,”

So, in this case the court has shown an originalist approach in interpretation of the constitution. As the court tried to enunciate the original and actual meaning of Equality before law as the framers of the constitution did not intend to treat the people of all classes in the same manner and in the same style disregarding their differences. This interpretation also can be enrolled in the category of equitable interpretation, which is based on innate sense of justice, balancing the interest of the parties and what is right and what is wrong.

Lack of theorization is also available in this judgment.

Ain o Shalish kendro v. Bangladesh

In this landmark case, the court has given a comprehensive meaning of right to life while interpreting article 31 and 32 of the constitution. The court held that right to life means something more than mere animal existence. It includes right to live consistently with human dignity. The court said, “when rootless people have taken shelter in slums and somehow making a livelihood, their wholesale eviction without any scheme of their rehabilitation has been found to offend the mandate of article 31 and 32.”

However, in this case the court did not go through fixed literal meaning of the term ‘right to life’, rather the court widened the scope of this right by giving a broader meaning of the Term.

These are some examples of constitutional interpretation from many leading cases of the Supreme Court. A critical appreciation of these cases makes the point clear that the supreme court of Bangladesh has been very active in the field of constitutional interpretations and of judicial activism as well. The judges also proved themselves as very smart and efficient in discharging the significant task of constitutional interpretation along with maintaining the international standard in this regard. But the main problem has been with them the lack of theorization of those interpretations given in their judgments, which has created a hazy situation as it becomes very difficult for a law student to understand the judgment. On the other hand, if we look at the supreme court of USA or any other developed state, we can see that whenever their judges interpret the constitution, they specify the theory which they are belonging to. Unlike the US Supreme Court, our Supreme Court always have been silent in this regard.

Court has a duty to respond to the collective cry of the society while imposing sentence; SC

The Supreme Court of India has reminded the courts that while imposing sentence, a Court has a duty to respond to the collective cry of the society. The Apex Court said that the agony of the victim or the survivors of the victim cannot be brushed aside.

The Apex Court in its seminal judgment said:

“The legislature in its wisdom has conferred discretion on the Court but the duty of the court in such a situation becomes more difficult and complex. It has to exercise the discretion on reasonable and rational parameters. The discretion cannot be allowed to yield to fancy or notion. A Judge has to keep in mind the paramount concept of rule of law and the conscience of the collective and balance it with the principle of proportionality but when the discretion is exercised in a capricious manner, it tantamounts to relinquishment of duty and reckless abandonment of responsibility. One cannot remain a total alien to the demand of the socio-cultural milieu regard being had to the command of law and also brush aside the agony of the victim or the survivors of the victim. Society waits with patience to see that justice is done. There is a hope on the part of the society and when the criminal culpability is established and the discretion is irrationally exercised by the court, the said hope is shattered and the patience is wrecked. It is the duty of the court not to exercise the discretion in such a manner as a consequence of which the expectation inherent in patience, which is the “finest part of fortitude” is destroyed. A Judge should never feel that the individuals who constitute the society as a whole is imperceptible to the exercise of discretion. He should always bear in mind that erroneous and fallacious exercise of discretion is perceived by a visible collective.”

A bench of the Apex Court comprising of Justice Dipak Misra and Justice Prafulla C. Pant while dealing with a case wherein sentence awarded to the accused under Section 306 IPC was minimal, held in a judgment rendered on Tuesday that the court of first instance as well as the appellate court which includes the High Court, either on individual notion or misplaced sympathy or personal perception seems to have been carried away by passion of mercy, being totally oblivious of lawful obligation to the collective as mandated by law and forgetting the oft-quoted saying of Justice Benjamin N. Cardozo “Justice, though due to the accused, is due to the accuser too” and follow an extremely liberal sentencing policy which has neither legal permissibility nor social acceptability.

The factual matrix of the case was as follows: The respondent nos. 2 to 4 (before SC) stood trial for the offence punishable under Section 306 IPC. Initially the FIR was registered under Section 302 IPC but during investigation, the investigating agency had converted the offence to one under Section 306 IPC. The charge was framed in respect of the offence under Section 306 IPC and the plea of the accused persons was one of complete denial.

After determining the guilt, while imposing the sentence, the learned trial Judge has held that:-

 “As per record, all the convicts are the first offender and they also belong to a weaker section of the society. While it has also come on record that the deceased had teased Seema, daughter of accused Satbir Singh. As such, all of them have committed an offence punishable u/s 306 of the Indian Penal Code. So, keeping in view the nature of the offence and other circumstances of the case and in order to meet the ends of justice, I think that a lenient view is required to be taken on the quantum of sentence. So, I sentence all the three convicts to undergo rigorous imprisonment for a period of three years each with a fine of Rs.3,000/- (Rs. Three thousand only) each and in default of payment thereof to undergo R.I. for six months. ”

Being aggrieved by the said judgment of conviction and order of sentence, the respondents preferred a criminal appeal before the High Court which affirmed the conviction.

As far as the criminal appeal is concerned, the High Court gave the stamp of approval to the conviction but as regards the sentence, it held thus:-

“As regards the quantum of sentence of imprisonment, this Court, hereby, refers to the jail custody certificates, as per which each of the appellants has undergone a period of 4 months and 20 days. They are not found to be involved in any other criminal case. In view of the totality of the circumstances, this Court is of the considered view that no useful purpose will be served by sending the appellants back to jail for remaining sentences of imprisonment. Ends of justice would be amply met if their substantive sentences of imprisonment are reduced to the one already undergone by them.

The reduction of sentence was the primary grievance in one of the appeals before the Supreme Court.

The Apex Court said that it is really unfathomable how the High Court could have observed that no useful purpose would be serve by sending the accused persons to jail for undergoing their remaining sentences of imprisonment, for the High Court itself has recorded that the appellants therein had remained in custody only for a period of four months and twenty days.

It was in this context that the afore extracted ruling warning courts against undue and misplaced sympathy towards accused and arbitrary exercise of judicial discretion came to be delivered.

Consequently, the appeal, as far as the challenge to the reduction of sentence by the High Court was concerned stood allowed by the Supreme Court and the judgment of conviction and order of sentence by the trial Judge was restored.

Introduction of ADR in criminal cases...

Introduction of ADR in criminal cases...

A huge backlog and delay in the disposal of cases, and consequent high-cost of litigation limits access to formal justice for the poor and disadvantaged in Bangladesh. According to a statistics from Transparency International, Bangladesh, we have only 77 Supreme Court justices, and 750 other judges to dispense justice to a population of nearly 150 million. This scarcity of judges is a contributing factor to the ever-increasing number of unresolved cases. For example, in 2006, only 148,563 cases were disposed of from a total of 617,059 cases placed before the district courts of Bangladesh and therefore, 468,496 cases pending for disposal at the end of the year. As a means to get rid of this backlog, Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) is often acclaimed for providing low-cost, quick access to justice. Unlike litigation ADR, more particularly mediation, is an informal dispute resolution process where parties can negotiate to settle disputes and determine outcomes which are mutually beneficial to them.

There are various types of ADR depending on their nature and objectives. For example, in some cases parties negotiate themselves without any help from third party while in other cases a third party may interfere and try to settle the dispute for mutual benefit of the parties. Amongst different forms of ADR, mediation is the most widely used ADR mechanism in Bangladesh. Outcomes of disputes settled through ADR may vary from outcomes suggested in respective laws. For example, though every Muslim woman is entitled under Muslim law to claim all of her unpaid dower on divorce, to avoid delay and uncertainties in recovery, a divorcee woman in family court ADR may give up a part of her unpaid dower but claim for a cash payment on settlement. As parties settle for a mutually agreed outcome, ADR ensures permanent settlement without a possibility of appeal. Early disposal also reduces cost to resolve disputes.

Therefore, a part of the claim may be sacrificed in ADR to ensure quick realization. To exploit such benefits, an active practice of ADR with some reformed agendas was first introduced in few pilot family courts of Bangladesh in 2000. Within few years of its reformed initiation, success of ADR was observed through a significant reduction of case backlog in family courts and a simultaneous increase in the realization of decree money by women. Realizing its potentials as a low-cost, quick dispute resolution mechanism, ADR has been introduced in various other civil courts of Bangladesh including Labour Courts, Money Loans Recovery Courts, Income Tax Tribunals, Village Courts, and Municipality Conciliation Boards.

However, one problem to practice ADR is that the 'quality' of outcome mostly depends on the negotiation capacity of parties attending ADR. For example, in our society still the image of an ideal woman is depicted as diffident, non-aggressive, and minimalist i.e. satisfied with minimum rights, and willing to sacrifice most of her rights to attain harmony. On the other hand, an ideal man is represented as valiant, conscious about maximum rights, and having power to gain command and control. This kind of social ideology creates 'power' differential between men and women that affects their negotiation capacity while attending ADR. Similar types of power disparity may also exist between other groups of the society like employers and employees, contractors and day laborers, village money lenders and borrowers, and social oppressors and oppressed. Therefore, to safeguard the interest of comparatively weaker parties in ADR, one or more unbiased and non-partisan third party hear the dispute and try to attain a settlement between parties that would ensure a fair outcome for both of them. For example, in resolving family disputes through ADR, family court judges act as an unbiased third party between a husband and a wife. As observed in one of my earlier research, while conducting ADR, family court judges not only try to settle disputes but also promote women to express their views. Third party mediators may interfere when husbands try to restrain women from expressing their views. Similar practices were also observed among third parties resolving disputes in different NGOs like MLLA, BLAST and BRAC.

However, there is no assurance that third parties will always be unbiased and non-partisan while performing their function. For example, village shalish is a century long institution in this sub-continent where one or more respected and elderly persons hear a dispute to dispense justice at the local level. However, shalish has lost its glory as the composition of the people administering shalish has mostly changed from respected elderly people to politically motivated local leaders. Because of their strong political ties, along with the influence of their money and political affiliation, newly emerged leaders superseded the traditional respect towards the age, reputation and lineage of the elderly leaders who prefer to uphold moral conduct rather than narrow political and personal interests.

The problem of maintaining unbiased position for third parties conducting ADR is not unique to Bangladesh rather is similar to the problem faced by many other countries using ADR. Therefore, different countries adopted various standards of ADR including the qualities of a third party, steps to be followed in conducting ADR, rights of parties attending ADR, responsibilities of a third party conducting ADR, and so on. However, despite the active practice of ADR in formal courts of Bangladesh for more than one decade, its development is mostly limited to some 'quantitative' aspects like quick disposal of cases and quick realization of decree money.

While conducting one of my recent studies on the quality of family court ADR in Bangladesh, I found virtually no literature that discussed comprehensively about the quality of ADR in Bangladesh. Further, various laws that deals with court connected ADR are at their primitive stage and are not comprehensive enough to address various qualitative factors. For example, the Family Court Ordinance discusses ADR minutely in two tiny sections.

Although the latest amendment of the Civil Procedure Code (CPC) included a detailed discussion on ADR, still such discussion is mostly limited to the process of conducting ADR and not much have been discussed about the duties and liabilities of a third party conducting ADR, and rights of disputing parties attending ADR. Similar trends can be observed in other laws admitting court connected ADR in Bangladesh. While court connected ADR lacks meticulous guidelines, out-of-court ADR conducted by NGOs remained totally out of the purview of any laws or regulations on ADR. Pertinently, though many of the developing countries including our neighbouring country India and China have detailed laws to control and regulate the quality of both in-court and out-of-court ADR, unfortunately, we are still running with a great vacuum in this regard. Therefore, despite the fact that some of the family court judges and other renowned NGOs are doing well in ensuring fair justice through ADR, lack of necessary regulations always poses a risk that such good practices on ADR may not be replicated in every corner of our society. While we are in the formative stage of adopting ADR in civil cases, one recent issue getting much attention from policy makers is whether we may introduce ADR in resolving criminal cases as well.

Laws alone cannot ensure rule of law

Laws alone cannot ensure rule of law

A scarecrow is a figure usually made of bamboo bars, straw or rugs. Dressed in old clothes, it looks like a person. Often it has a painted face made of a pumpkin skin.

The scarecrow is put in a cornfield to frighten birds away. The innocent, simple birds are really scared and they don't dare to come near the field. But some birds strong and greedy do not get frightened. They are often found not only to come near the scarecrow, but also to perch on its arms and head to rest after eating the grain to their hearts' content. Seeing these birds enjoying food and security, some other birds ask themselves, "They are having good meals. The scarecrow does not scare them. Why should we be fools and starve?" So all the birds join in the feast.

A law is made with the express intent to help people in getting justice through a legal system, thereby aiming to achieve the "greatest happiness of the greatest number" (Priestley: Essay on Government). But very often the law fails to serve this purpose. The innocent, simple, illiterate and the poor cannot access legal procedure because it is highly expensive, complicated and time-consuming to them. So they look upon law from a distance as a frightening scarecrow. On the other hand, some people in societylike those strong, greedy birdstame, twist or tarnish a law and use it for their own benefits. Some others follow suit and seize the opportunity too. Thus the law is made into a no-more frightening, rather a tattered scarecrow. It is this second group that is mainly responsible for making many laws ineffective. Not only that, they make law an accomplice in fulfilling their greed for power and possessions.

Who are the major actors in this grab-all-you-can chase? They are well known in society. They are strong, influential people belonging to all the stakeholder groups lawmakers, law-protectors and enforcers. Let's see how they are going on this wrecking spree.

1. Some lawmakers and decision-makers have an implied intent behind making a law. The purpose here is to protect the interest of, or punish, a group or section or class of people. Laws like Special Powers Act, Indemnity Act and the like are examples in question. These laws more often than not fail to ensure justice and equity for the greatest happiness of the greatest number. Rather they often tantamount to becoming instruments of misuse or abuse of power.

2. Some lawmakers fail to see whether a law is justifiable. As a result, its breach is not normally considered punishable by the enforcers. Cars are found parked right under the 'No Parking' signs in front of some shopping centers. If the law here is strictly enforced, there will hardly be any buyers coming to these shops, as there are no parking lots around. Again, people are found passing water on the edges of the city footpaths in broad daylight, as there are hardly any public toilets on the crowded city roads.

3. Some law enforcers are negligent in performing their duties. All the law enforcement agencies and personnel are to see that the laws are enforced, so that their intended goals are achieved. But this often does not happen. With the blessing of their saviors and godfathers, musclemen, terrorists and extortionists are often found freely, often defiantly moving in society. Water bodies and land in big cities are being grabbed by a powerful section of people. A bus stops in the middle of the road to collect passengers right under a traffic policeman's nose. Another traffic policeman is found allowing a flag car to make a U-turn ignoring a 'No U-Turn' sign. In many offices files do not get moving from one table to another until they are pushed either by an underhand deal or by a powerful hand from above. Wild birds are sold openly on the city roads. Your phone line has been out of order for a week or more, but you can get it fixed soon by generous bakshish or by a phone call from a powerful uncle. Polythene bags, the culprits causing serious environmental degradation, are now more seen than they were before the ban. These are just the tip of the iceberg.

4. Some bureaucrats follow their own code of conduct. They do not listen they only order and in doing so they naturally follow just one principle, that is 'Doing Things Top Down'. A bureaucrat is often heard to say to a person: "Do you know who you are talking to? You are talking to the sarker." So he is the Law and he means it. Hence almost all the cases of recruitment, promotion, transfer, posting, etc are carried out through top-down orders.

Often these unfair, unjust and illegal activities of the so-called protectors and enforcers of law are carried out ex parte more speedily and more smoothly (?) with the help of some auxiliary force or bahini, ie the armed cadres of musclemen and a section of students. The result is: the general people who are often denied justice and whose fundamental and constitutional rights are not often protected become demoralized, frustrated, outraged. Then they develop deep disrespect for law-a debasing, depraving situation that makes them almost believe that the only law is the absence of law, that a person is law, that might is right. To them law is nothing but a mockery of justice, a big joke, just like a scarecrow in a cornfield. As a result, there exists a free-for-all everywhere in society. And hell is let loose.

So where do we go from here? It is no easy job on the part of the lawmakers and the law-enforcers alone to contain this orgy of lawlessness. This is because both the cause and the effect of this situation, if expressed in one word, are corruption that thrives on self-interest and personal aggrandizement. Hence the way forward cannot be any short-cut, one-off, legal measures rather it calls for a long-term process of raising awareness about, and educating general people on, the benevolent power of law that can render justice and equity to all the deserving people irrespective of class, caste and creed. This is doable. Make the study of basic laws compulsory in a graded way in our curriculum primary through higher secondary. Side by side, continue making legal education and practice both means and end of social good through the law curriculum followed at the country's universities and colleges. Only then will people in general develop, over time, a sense of duty and responsibility, build their character and respect law. Only then will people appreciate and accept what Thomas Fuller said 300 years ago, "Be you never so high, the law is above you."

WHAT MAKES US TO BE INHUMANE TOWARDS CHILDREN?

WHAT MAKES US TO BE INHUMANE TOWARDS CHILDREN?

The continuous ruthless killings, torture and abuse of children in Bangladesh are turning into a daily life phenomenon that we fail to prevent let alone stop. Law is there, trial process is there and the crying for children justice turns into screaming but all these things regrettably end with no results. This is not the ending rather in many cases child abuse is getting new dimensions along with distinctive styles of torture.

While protection of children is supposed to get priority, abuse of children is seeing wider demonstration instead. Here Protection replaces the ill-treatment against children. This is true that immediate trail of the perpetrators can bring solace to the victim's family and warn the potential perpetrators but this cannot ultimately prevent the abuse of children that we are seeing with each passing day.

The underlying cause of child abuse associates not with the behaviour of particular individual only rather it represents how the society views or treats the children and how they receive and react?

Torture in the name of regulation is justified traditionally in our society starting from primary school to university level. What makes the difference is that earlier children by virtue of unawareness were most obedient even being tortured but now they react against any unjust behaviour and consequently they are becoming the victims of brutal torture. Here lies the significance of attitude building not only for the adults but also for the children.

In terms of attitude building children always learn from parents and adults since they cannot make their own decisions. So it is easy to predict that the behaviour what we do against children will be paid accordingly. It is evident that children these days are having difficult times because of the attitude of the adults while statistics suggest that if you treat or protect ten children properly seven of them will come to the right path.
Coming back to the causes of child abuse it can be clearly said after analysing the recent incidents that child labour is the source of child abuse. When a child cannot perform according to the desire of the employer, oppression starts. Here it is obvious that child abuse starts when there is an existence of violation of children rights that is child labour. A single problem generates more problems!

With a view to addressing the problems of children, even the constitution of Bangladesh provides special privileges to the children and it allows the concerned laws to be discriminatory for the sake of ensuring the best interest of the children. Children Act 2013 also incorporates provisions dealing with the protection measures with a view to ensuring children rights. Some provisions of this Act reflect the provisions of Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) in order to comply with international standard of child protection.

Though the Act calls for setting up National, District and Upazila Child Welfare Boards, Child Affairs Desk at the police station, establishing sufficient numbers of safe homes and certified institutes, unfortunately we do not see the implementation of these provisions.

Law cannot function properly in a dysfunctional society in which we are living; law cannot ensure justice when state lacks commitment in terms of ensuring rule of law. Law is certainly meant to be blind when the protector and executor of law turn into violator and perpetrator of law. Amidst of social unrest prevalent everywhere people become intolerant to others even to their beloved kids and they show zero respect towards laws.

To come out from this upheaval, endeavours should march from all corners of the society. Most significantly, the main principles governing child rights: non-discrimination, best interest of the child, parental guidance should be practiced firstly within the family. Parents should not only educate but also edify their children to foster their ideals and values. Any kind of dominance and inhumane attitude instead of positive influence from the parents might results into the denial of their growth. What Kahlil Gibran said regarding the relationship of parents and children deserves to be signified here, in his words, “they (children) come through you but not from you, And though they are with you, yet they belong not to you. You may give them your love but not your thoughts. For they have their own thoughts”.

Lastly we should not forget that when we protect our children for a single reason we are actually protecting ourselves and our future.

আইন পেশায় ক্যারিয়ার গড়তে যা যা করণীয়ঃ

আইন পেশায় ক্যারিয়ার গড়তে যা যা করণীয়ঃ

বাংলাদেশে যতগুলো আত্মনির্ভরকেন্দ্রিক পেশা রয়েছে তার মধ্যে আইন পেশা হল সবার পরিচিত একটি গুরুত্বপূর্ণ পেশা। এ পেশায় এসে আপনি যেমন অসহায় মানুষের পাশে দাঁড়াতে পারবেন, তেমনি সমাজে সবার কাছে নিজেকে উপস্থাপন করার সুযোগ পাবেন। আপনিও পারেন আইন পেশায় এসে সফল ক্যারিয়ার গড়তে। সে জন্য কি কি করতে হবে কোথায় ভর্তি হবে এবং এ পেশায় আর্থিক সুবিধা কি ? এ নিয়ে আলোচনা করছি।
কোথায় কীভাবে শুরু করবেন?
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প্রথমে আপনাকে এইচএসসি পাসের পর যে কোনো সরকারি অথবা বেসরকারি বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ে আইন অনুষদে ভর্তি হতে হবে। এখানে আপনাকে চার বছরমেয়াদি এলএলবি অনার্স সম্পন্ন করতে হবে। এ ক্ষেত্রে সরকারি বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ের মধ্যে যেমন ঢাকা বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়, , রাজশাহী বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়, চট্টগ্রাম বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়, জগন্নাথ বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়,জাহাঙ্গীরনগর ও কুষ্টিয়া ইসলা্মি বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়সহ যে কোনো বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ের আইন অনুষদে ভর্তি পরীক্ষায় উত্তীর্ণ হতে হবে। আপনি ইচ্ছা করলে বেসরকারি বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ে ভর্তি হতে পারেন। আর বাংলাদেশের প্রায় সব বেসরকারি বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ে আইনের জন্য এলএলবি অনার্স কোর্স চালু আছে। এখানে পড়তে হলে প্রতিষ্ঠানভেদে খরচ পড়বে ৩ থেকে ৫ লাখ টাকা। এছাড়া আপনি চার বছর মেয়াদি এলএলবি না করেও আইন পেশায় আসতে পারেন। এ জন্য আপনাকে যে কোনো বিশ্ববিদ্যালয় অথবা কলেজ থেকে অনার্স বা ডিগ্রি পাস করে জাতীয় বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়য়ের অধীনে যে কোনো ল’ কলেজে দু’বছর এলএলবি (পাস) কোর্স করতে হবে। এখানে আপনার খরচ পড়বে বিশ থেকে পঁচিশ হাজার টাকা। এছাড়া বেসরকারি বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়েও পড়া যায়। এখানে খরচ পড়বে ৮০ হাজার থেকে এক লাখ টাকা।
সুযোগ সুবিধা:
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আপনাকে এলএলবি অনার্স শেষে বার কাউন্সিল সনদ গ্রহণ করে সিএমএম জজকোর্ট, হাইকোর্ট ও সুপ্রিমকোর্টের জন্য আলাদা আলাদা বারের সনদ গ্রহণ করতে হবে। সনদ পাওয়ার জন্য প্রথমে বার কাউন্সিলের ফরমে আবেদন করতে হবে। এরপর তিন ধাপে তথা এমসিকিউ। লিখিত ও মৌখিক পরীক্ষায় উত্তীর্ণ হতে হবে। এলএলবি অনার্স ও এলএলবি (পাস) কোর্সের পর জেএসসি অর্থাৎ জুডিসিয়াল সার্ভিস কমিশন ও সহকারী জজ নিয়োগ পরীক্ষা দিতে পারবেন। এছাড়া আইনজীবী হতে চাইলে এলএলবি বা এলএলবি(অনার্স) অথবা এলএলএম পাশ করেই বাংলাদেশ বার কাউন্সল থেকে সনদপ্রাপ্ত হয়ে যে কোন আইনজীবী সমিতির সদস্য হয়ে সরাসরি আইনজীবী হয়ে যেতে পারেন।
আয়-রোজগার:
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জুডিসিয়াল ম্যাজিষ্ট্রেট বা সহকারী জজ পদে নিয়োগ পেলে সর্বোচ্চ
সম্মান, বিবিধ সুবিধা সহ মোটা অংকের মাইনে তো আছেই।
আইনজীবী হলে আয়-রোজগারের বিষয়টি অভিজ্ঞতা, ব্যক্তিগত দক্ষতা, সামাজিক যোগাযোগ ও মামলার ধরনের ওপর নির্ভর করে। এ ব্যাপারে সুপ্রিমকোর্টের সিনিয়র আইনজীবী অ্যাডভোকেট মঈনউদ্দীন ফারুকী জানান, হাইকোর্ট অথবা সুপ্রিম কোর্টের আইনজীবীদের মাসিক আয় মামলার ধরন অনুযায়ী ৫০ হাজার থেকে ৫ লাখ টাকা পর্যন্ত। আইন পেশায় সদ্য যোগদানকারী আইনজীবী আবুল কাশেম জানান, একজন নতুন আইনজীবী সাধারণত ২০ থেকে ২৫ হাজার টাকা আয় করে থাকেন।
আরও চাকরি:
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একজন আইনজীবী আইন পেশার পাশাপাশি যে কোনো কোম্পানির লিগ্যাল অ্যাডভাইজার, যে কোনো ব্যাংকের নিজস্ব আইনজীবী অথবা জাতীয় বা আন্তর্জাতিক কোনো সংস্থার আইন উপদেষ্টা হিসেবে চাকরি করতে পারেন। আইন কমিশনেও চাকরির সুযোগ আছে। এখানে আয় ও সম্মান উভয়টি ভালো মানের। এ ব্যাপারে বাংলাদেশ সুপ্রিমকোর্টের সিনিয়র আইনজীবী অ্যাডভোকেট দিলরুবা সরমিন জানান, বর্তমানে ব্যাংক, বীমা ছাড়াও বিভিন্ন মার্কেট ও বিউটি পার্লারসহ ছোট বড় প্রায় সব প্রতিষ্ঠানে লিগ্যাল অ্যাডভাইজার নিয়োগ দেয়া হচ্ছে। এতে একজন আইনজীবীর কাজের পরিধি সম্প্রসারিত হচ্ছে। বাড়ছে আয়ের ক্ষেত্র।
স্কলারশিপ:
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আইন পেশায় উচ্চতর ডিগ্রি নেয়ার জন্য আপনি বাংলাদেশের স্বীকৃত কোনো বিশ্ববিদ্যালয় অথবা আন্তর্জাতিক সংস্থা যেমন- সার্ক, কমনওয়েলথ, আইডিবি, ব্রিটিশ কাউন্সিল, আগাঁখান মেমোরিয়াল ট্রাস্ট থেকে স্কলারশিপ নিয়ে লন্ডনে ব্রিটিশ কাউন্সিলে বার-এট-ল অর্থাৎ ব্যারিস্টারি করতে পারবেন। ব্যারিস্টারি করতে হলে আপনাকে লন্ডন বার কাউন্সিলের সনদ নিতে হবে। স্কলারশিপের জন্য আপনাকে জাতীয় অথবা আন্তর্জাতিক স্কলারশিপ বৃত্তি অফিসে যোগাযোগ করতে হবে। সুতরাং অন্যান্য পেশার চেয়ে আইন পেশা অনেক লাভজনক ও সম্মানজনক। আইন পেশায় গড়ুন আপনার স্বপ্নের সফল ক্যারিয়ার॥

পুলিশ ক্লিয়ারেন্স সার্টিফিকট সম্পর্কে :

 পুলিশ ক্লিয়ারেন্স সার্টিফিকট সম্পর্কে :

বিদেশে যাওয়া বা বিদেশে চাকুরির ক্ষেত্রে অধিকাংশ ক্ষেত্রে পুলিশ ক্লিয়ারেন্স সার্টিফিকেট প্রয়োজন হয়। পুলিশ ক্লিয়রেন্স সার্টিফিকেট এর অর্থ হচ্ছে, যাকে পুলিশ
ক্লিয়ারেন্স দেয়া হচ্ছে তিনি কোন অপরাধী নন এবং তার বিরুদ্ধে থানায় কোন

অভিযোগও নেই। ঢাকার বাসিন্দাদের পুলিশ ক্লিয়ারেন্স সার্টিফিকেট প্রয়োজন
হলে রমনায় অবস্থিত ঢাকা মেট্রোপলিটন পুলিশের সদরদপ্তরে যোগাযোগ করতে হবে। সকল পুলিশ ক্লিয়ারেন্স সার্টিফিকেট ইংরেজী ভাষায় পররাষ্ট্র মন্ত্রণালয় হতে সত্যায়িত করে দেয়া হয়।

যোগাযোগ:
‘পুলিশ ক্লিয়ারেন্স ওয়ান ষ্টপ সার্ভিস’, রুম-১০৯, ঢাকা মেট্রোপলিটন পুলিশ হেডকোয়াটার্স, ৩৬, শহীদ ক্যাপ্টেন মনসুর আলী সরণী, রমনা, ঢাকা।
হেল্পলাইনঃ- ০১১৯১০০৬৬৪৪, ০২-৭১২৪০০০, ৯৯৯-২৬৩৫

পুলিশ ক্লিয়ারেন্স সার্টিফিকেট নেবার পদ্ধতি:
একটি সাদা কাগজে বাংলা বা ইংরেজীতে পুলিশ কমিশনার মহোদয় বরাবর আবেদন করতে হয়, সাথে ১ম শ্রেণীর সরকারী গেজেটেড কর্মকর্তা কর্তৃক সত্যায়িত পাসপোর্টের
ফটোকপি দিতে হয়। পাসপোর্টের যে সকল পৃষ্ঠায় প্রার্থী সংক্রান্ত তথ্য রয়েছে যে সকল পৃষ্ঠা এবং যদি নবায়ন করা হয়ে থাকে তবে নাবায়নের পৃষ্ঠাসহ পাসপোর্টের
ফটোকপি দাখিল করতে হয়। কর্তৃপক্ষ চাইলে মূল পাসপোর্টও প্রদর্শন করতে হয়। মেয়াদ উত্তীর্ণ পাসপোর্ট গৃহীত হয় না।

Law students: seven ways to motivate yourself

Law students: seven ways to motivate yourself

Studying law can be overwhelming at times, but changing your attitude can make things a whole lot easier

Here’s some advice I wish I’d followed from the start of my journey into a law career:

1. Don’t compare yourself to your peers

People often question their chances of success compared to the top students. There’s nothing wrong with healthy competition, but constantly comparing yourself to others means constantly undermining yourself.

Katy Wellstead, a law student at Middlesex University, says: “It’s so important to make sure you concentrate on your own progression. At the end of the day, it’s your degree – not theirs.”

2. Be yourself

Students hear this constantly, but it’s natural to change the way you speak in front of legal professionals. However, many law students do so in a way that makes what they’re saying incomprehensible.

Dawn Hyland, a barrister for the Crown Prosecution service, says: “Many professionals enjoy an ordinary and relaxed conversation rather than people trying to impress them – always have a few interesting or memorable alternative topics up your sleeve”.

A family judge once told me the finest barrister he ever met was one who spoke as if he was in casual conversation – he was straight to the point and easy to understand. Keep calm and remember, they’re people just like us.

3. Remind yourself of how far you’ve come

Everyone, at some point, feels like giving up. Greta Reichel, a law student at the University of Portsmouth, says: “Whenever I feel like I can’t keep going I talk to friends on my course about it. They usually feel the same way and it’s easier to motivate each other”.

You may feel like giving up because you received a grade you didn’t expect or you’re just generally fed up. But remind yourself of how far you’ve already come – the fact you’ve made it to university and are studying law is an achievement in itself.

I think back to my early experience in education and remember how much I’ve progressed, which motivates me further. There’s always something to be proud of.

4. Have a goal

Studying law can be tedious and seem endless, so ask yourself why you’re doing it and what you want from it.

Claire Sparrow, a former barrister and law lecturer at the University of Portsmouth, says: “You’ll only do well if you’re doing the right course in the right place. You have at least three years of hard work to complete and it’ll be easier if you enjoy the subject and like where you are”.

For many students, their main goal is a career in law. Personally, I also want to prove a few things to myself and this has helped me through my first two years.

5. Be consistent

You’ve probably been told by your tutors to complete seminar work. There’s no point doing it one week then not bothering for the next two weeks. Consistency in your study schedule is key. Admittedly, I didn’t do seminar work in first year and was clueless when it came to exams.

But I did it in second year and flagged up anything I didn’t understand to my tutor. This helped considerably during exams. I felt more confident and understood the content with greater ease. Changing your attitude in this way could be key to your success.

6. Keep looking for opportunities

You may find you’re attending endless networking events and leaving without having gained much. But make the most of these events by asking for email addresses, handing out CVs and asking for work experience.

Legal professionals attend them to help us and if you don’t ask, you won’t know what might have come of it. The worst they could say is no. I attended a bar networking event and came out with work experience and a new mentor. Opportunities don’t need to be confined within law; you never know what one event could lead to.

7. Remember, it’s not impossible

Law is competitive and fierce, so maintain a realistic mindset if you wish to pursue it as a career, but don’t let the competition discourage you.

Murshida Khan, a law student at the University of Portsmouth, says: “Law is a fantastic, challenging and respected degree. If you genuinely have an interest in law and the ambition to achieve, you’ll make it through to the end”.

Don’t give up because you’re afraid of the challenge and competition. It’s difficult, but with self-motivation and optimism, not impossible.

কে সিনিয়র অ্যাডভোকেট ?

কে সিনিয়র অ্যাডভোকেট ?

সিনিয়র অ্যাডভোকেট মানে শুধু আপিল বিভাগের অ্যাডভোকেট নয়। হাইকোর্ট বিভাগে ১০ বছর প্রাকটিস করার পর প্রথমত আপিল বিভাগে অ্যাডভোকেট হবার জন্য আবেদন করতে হয়।
আপিল বিভাগে অ্যাডভোকেট হবার পরে আরো ১০ বছর প্রাকটিসের বয়স হলে, প্রধান বিচারপতি বরাবরে সিনিয়র আইনজীবী হবার জন্য আবেদন করতে হয়।
প্রধান বিচারপতি মহোদয় ২ দিন তাকে অবজার্ভ করে সন্তুষ্ট হয়ে সার্টিফাই করলেই কেবল তিনি সিনিয়র লইয়ার হিসেবে স্বীকৃত হবেন।
সিনিয়র লইয়ার মানে টু-স্টার (দুই তারকা বিশিষ্ট) লইয়ার।
হাইকোর্ট বিভাগে ১০ বছর প্রাকটিস হয়ে গেলে একজন আইনজীবী ওয়ান-স্টার (এক তারকা বিশিষ্ট) লইয়ার হিসেবে স্বীকৃত হন।
বয়স বেশি হলেই উকিল সিনিয়র হয় না, বড়জোর একজন সিনিয়র মানুষ হতে পারেন

বন্ধুরা আসুন জেনে নেই বাংলাদেশ থেকে ব্যারিস্টার হওয়ার প্রস্তুতি কোথায় এবং কীভাবে?

বন্ধুরা আসুন জেনে নেই বাংলাদেশ থেকে ব্যারিস্টার হওয়ার প্রস্তুতি কোথায় এবং কীভাবে?

আইন শব্দকোষ-এ ব্যারিস্টার শব্দের ব্যাখ্যা করা হয়েছে এভাবে, ইংল্যান্ডের ইনস অব কোর্টের তালিকাভুক্ত ছাত্র হিসেবে কাউন্সিল অব লিগ্যাল এডুকেশনের শিক্ষাক্রম অনুযায়ী অধ্যয়ন ও প্রশিক্ষণ সমাপ্ত করে সনদপ্রাপ্ত যারা। যুক্তরাজ্য বা অস্ট্রেলিয়ার আইনজীবীকে বলা হয় ব্যারিস্টার। ব্যারিস্টার অ্যাট-ল সংক্ষেপে বার অ্যাট-ল। ব্যারিস্টার হতে হলে যুক্তরাজ্যের আইনের ওপর পড়াশুনা করতে হবে। এ জন্য ইংল্যান্ডে নয় মাসের একটি বার প্রফেশনাল ট্রেনিং কোর্স (সংক্ষেপে বিপিটিসি) করতে হয়। এই কোর্সের সফল সমাপ্তি শেষে পাওয়া যায় ইংল্যান্ড বার কাউন্সিলের স্বীকৃতি ও সনদ। উল্লেখ্য, বাংলাদেশের আইনজীবীদের বলা হয় অ্যাডভোকেট। আমেরিকাতে আইনজীবীকে বলা হয় অ্যাটর্নি। তেমনি করে যুক্তরাষ্ট্রের বা অস্ট্রেলিয়ার আইনজীবীকে বলা হয় ব্যারিস্টার। এভাবে বিভিন্ন দেশে আইনজীবীকে বিভিন্ন নামে অভিহিত করা হয়। আমাদের ঔপনিবেশক দেশ যুক্তরাজ্য হবার কারণে এবং স্বাধীন বাংলাদেশ সত্ত্বেও ঔপনিবেশক মন স্বাধীন না হবার কারণে বাংলাদেশে ব্যারিস্টারকে অত্যন্ত সম্মানের চোখে দেখা হয়। ব্যারিস্টার হওয়ার যোগ্যতা কোনো শিক্ষার্থী এইচএসসি কিংবা A লেভেল পাশ করে সরাসরি যুক্তরাজ্যে ব্যারিস্টারি পড়াশুনা করার জন্য চলে যেতে পারে। এক্ষেত্রে শিক্ষার্থীকে আইনের বিষয়ে প্রথমে ৩ বছরের গ্র্যাজুয়েশন কোর্স সম্পন্ন করতে হবে। এরপর তাকে ৯ মাসের Bar Vocational করতে হয়। এই Bar Vocational করা শেষ হলে তিনি ব্যারিস্টার হিসাবে গণ্য হবেন। যুক্তরাজ্যে পড়াশুনা করতে আগ্রহী শিক্ষার্থীদের জন্য ভর্তি সংক্রান্ত সকল সহায়তাদানকারী সবচেয়ে নির্ভরযোগ্য প্রতিষ্ঠান হলো British Council (ব্রিটিশ কাউন্সিল)। তবে বর্তমানে বাংলাদেশ থেকেও আইনের ওপর গ্র্যাজুয়েশন কোর্স করা যায়। বাংলাদেশে তিন বছরের গ্র্যাজুয়েশন কোর্স সম্পন্ন করে যুক্তরাজ্য গিয়ে ৯ মাসের Bar Vocational Course করা যায়। এক্ষেত্রে শিক্ষার্থীকে অবশ্যই আইনের উপর গ্র্যাজুয়েশন কোর্সে ৫৫% মার্ক পেতে হবে এবং IELTS এ প্রতিটি ক্ষেত্রে (Reading, Writing, Speaking, Listening) আলাদাভাবে ৭.৫ পেতে হবে। কোনো শিক্ষার্থী যদি বাংলাদেশ থেকে ইতোমধ্যে আইন বিষয়ে ৪ বছরের স্নাতক কিংবা স্নাতকোত্তর করা থাকে সেক্ষেত্রে তাকে গ্র্যাজুয়েশনের ১২টি কোর্সের পরিবর্তে ৯টি কোর্স করতে হয় এবং ২ বছরে ৯টি কোর্স সম্পন্ন করা সম্ভব। তারপর যথারীতি ৯ মাসের Bar Vocational কোর্স যুক্তরাজ্যে করতে হয়। বাংলাদেশে Bar Vocational Course করা সম্ভব নয়। বাংলাদেশে শুধু তিন বছর বা ২ বছর মেয়াদের গ্র্যাজুয়েশন কোর্স করা যায়। ব্যারিস্টার হতে হলেই বার প্রফেশনাল ট্রেনিং কোর্স করতে হবে। কিন্তু এই কোর্সে সরাসরি ভর্তি হওয়া যায় না। ভর্তি হতে চাইলে প্রথম শর্ত হলো তাঁকে আইইএলটিএস করতে হবে। দ্বিতীয় শর্ত হলো, নিচের তিন যোগ্যতার যেকোনো একটি থাকতে হবে : ১. কোনো ব্রিটিশ বিশ্ববিদ্যালয় বা তার অধিভুক্ত কোনো শিক্ষাপ্রতিষ্ঠান থেকে ন্যূনতম দ্বিতীয় শ্রেণির এলএলবি (সম্মান) পাস হতে হবে। ২. কোনো ব্রিটিশ বিশ্ববিদ্যালয় বা স্বীকৃত প্রতিষ্ঠান থেকে আইনে অনার্স ডিগ্রিধারী কারও যদি তৃতীয় শ্রেণি থাকে, তবে তাঁকে কোনো ব্রিটিশ বিশ্ববিদ্যালয় বা তার অধিভুক্ত কোনো প্রতিষ্ঠান থেকে দ্বিতীয় শ্রেণিসহ এলএলএম (মাস্টার্স) পাস করতে হবে। ৩. ইংল্যান্ডের কোনো বিশ্ববিদ্যালয় বা স্বীকৃত কোনো প্রতিষ্ঠান থেকে কেউ যদি অন্য কোনো বিষয়ে মাস্টার্স ডিগ্রি অর্জন করেন, তবে তাঁকে নয় মাসের আরেকটি কোর্স সমপন্ন করতে হবে। এ ক্ষেত্রে অনার্স ডিগ্রিধারীদের উল্লিখিত প্রথম যোগ্যতা অর্জন করতে হবে। ব্রিটিশ বিশ্ববিদ্যালয় বা স্বীকৃত প্রতিষ্ঠান ছাড়া অন্য কোনো বিশ্ববিদ্যালয় থেকে কেউ অনার্স পাস করলে (যে বিষয়ই হোক), বার প্রফেশনাল ট্রেনিং কোর্সে ভর্তি হতে হলে তাঁকে আবার নতুন করে কোনো ব্রিটিশ বিশ্ববিদ্যালয় বা স্বীকৃত প্রতিষ্ঠান থেকে আইন বিষয়ে অনার্স করতে হবে। তবে এ ক্ষেত্রে মাস্টার্স ডিগ্রিধারীরা একটা বিশেষ সুবিধা পান, তা হলো, তাদের অনার্সের মোট ১২টি বিষয়ের মধ্যে তিনটি বিষয় কম পড়লেই চলে। বার এট ’ল ডিগ্রি লাভে সহায়তাদানকারী বাংলাদেশি প্রতিষ্ঠান : বাংলাদেশের বেশ কিছু প্রতিষ্ঠান থেকে ব্যারিস্টারি করার জন্য গ্র্যাজুয়েশন কোর্স করা যায়। যেখানে ইংল্যান্ডের পাঠ্যক্রম অনুযায়ী আইন পড়ানো হয়ে থাকে। ব্রিটিশ স্কুল অব ’ল, ভূঁইয়া একাডেমি, নিউ ক্যাসেল ’ল একাডেমি, লন্ডন কলেজ লিগ্যাল স্টাডিজ (এলসিএলএস) প্রভৃতি। এসব প্রতিষ্ঠানের শিক্ষার্থীরা ইংল্যান্ডের অন্যান্য বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ের সঙ্গে অভিন্ন প্রশ্নপত্রে একই সময়ে পরীক্ষায় অংশ নিয়ে থাকেন। তাঁদের উত্তরপত্রের মূল্যায়নটাও হয় ইংল্যান্ডে। এসব স্বীকৃত প্রতিষ্ঠান থেকে আইনে অনার্স পাস করার পর ইংল্যান্ডে সরাসরি বার প্রফেশনাল ট্রেনিং কোর্সে ভর্তি হওয়া যায়। এইচএসসি বা সমমানের ডিগ্রিধারী যে কেউ এসব প্রতিষ্ঠানে তিন-চার বছর মেয়াদি এলএলবি (সম্মান) কোর্সে ভর্তি হতে পারেন। সে ক্ষেত্রে এসএসসি ও এইচএসসি মিলে তাঁদের জিপিএ ৫ থাকতে হবে। অবশ্য এসব প্রতিষ্ঠানে পড়ার নির্দিষ্ট কোনো বয়সসীমা নেই। ইংল্যান্ডের ইউনিভার্সিটি অব লন্ডন আর ইউনিভার্সিটি অব নর্দামব্রিয়া দূরশিক্ষণ পদ্ধতিতে ব্রিটিশ ডিগ্রি নেওয়ার সুযোগ দেয়। তবে ঘরে বসে ব্রিটিশ বিশ্ববিদ্যালয় বা স্বীকৃত প্রতিষ্ঠান থেকে আইন বিষয়ে অনার্স করা গেলেও নয় মাসের বার প্রফেশনাল ট্রেনিং কোর্সের জন্য ইংল্যান্ডে যেতেই হবে। খরচ : Bar at Law সম্পন্ন করতে সম্ভাব্য ব্যয় হতে পারে ৩০ লাখ থেকে ৭০ লাখ পর্যন্ত। তবে শিক্ষাপ্রতিষ্ঠানভেদে বার প্রফেশনাল ট্রেনিং কোর্সের টিউশন ফি বাংলাদেশি টাকায় প্রায় ১৫ লাখ ৪৬ হাজার থেকে ১৫ লাখ ৭৯ হাজার টাকা (১৪ হাজার ২০০ থেকে ১৪ হাজার ৫০০ পাউন্ড)। ব্রিটিশ বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ের এলএলবি (অনার্স) ডিগ্রিটা যদি ঘরে বসে নিতে চান, তবে বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ের টিউশন ফি ও বাংলাদেশি প্রতিষ্ঠানের টিউশন ফি বাবদ কমপক্ষে ১৯ থেকে ২০ লাখ টাকা লাগবে। ইংল্যান্ডে গিয়ে নিতে চাইলে শুধু টিউশন ফি বাবদ লাগবে ২৬ থেকে ৫৬ লাখ। থাকা-খাওয়া-যাতায়াত খরচ মাসে কমপক্ষে ৪৪ থেকে ৬৫ হাজার টাকা (৪০০ থেকে ৬০০ পাউন্ড)। তাতে দেশে বসে নেওয়া একটা বার অ্যাট-লর ক্ষেত্রে খরচ পড়বে ৪০ থেকে ৪৪ লাখ টাকা। আর ইংল্যান্ডে গিয়ে পড়তে চাইলে পড়বে ৬৩ লাখ থেকে এক কোটি টাকার মতো। কেউ যদি ব্যারিস্টারি ডিগ্রি অর্জন করে বাংলাদেশে আইন পেশায় নিয়োজিত হতে চায় সেক্ষেত্রে তাকে বার কাউন্সিলের পরীক্ষায় পাশ করে সনদ নিতে হবে। এখানে উল্লেখ করা প্রয়োজন যে, এর আগে যদি কেউ ব্যারিস্টারি ডিগ্রি অর্জন করত, সে সরাসরি বাংলাদেশে আইন পেশায় নিয়োজিত হতে পারত। অর্থাৎ তাকে বার কাউন্সিলের পরীক্ষায় পাশ করে সনদ নেওয়ার প্রয়োজন হতো না। কিন্তু এখন সেই নিয়মের পরিবর্তন করা হয়েছে।

মৃত ব্যক্তির সম্পত্তিতে তার মাতার অধিকার (Mother):

মৃত ব্যক্তির সম্পত্তিতে তার মাতার অধিকার (Mother):

উত্তরাধিকার লাভের ক্ষেত্রে মাতার তিন অবস্থা হতে পারে:
ক) যদি মৃত ব্যক্তির সন্তান বা পুত্রের সন্তানাদি, যত নিম্নেরই হউক, অথবা যদি পূর্ণ বৈমাত্রেয় বা বৈপিত্রেয় দুই বা ততোধিক ভাই কিংবা বোন, এমনকি একজন ভাই এবং একজন বোন থাকে, তাহলে ও ১/৬ অংশ পাবেন। যেমন:
মৃত ব্যক্তি
মাতা (১/৬) পুত্র (৫/৬)

খ) কিন্তু যেসকল ক্ষেত্রে মাতা ১/৩ অংশ পায় সেক্ষেত্র গুলো নীচে দেওয়া হলো:
যখন মৃত ব্যক্তির কোন সন্তান অথবা পুত্রের সন্তান (যতই নিম্নগামী হোক না কেন) না থাকে, অথবা, যখন মৃত ব্যক্তির এক ভাই অথবা এক বোন এর বেশী না থাকে। কিন্তু বিশেষভাবে উল্লেখ করা যেতে পারে যে, যদি মৃত ব্যক্তির স্ত্রীর অথবা স্বামীর সাথে মাতা এবং পিতা থাকে, তবে সেক্ষেত্রে স্বামী বা স্ত্রীর অংশ বাদ দেবার পর যে অংশ বাকি থাকে, মাতা তার ১/৩ অংশ পাবে। প্রকৃত পিতামহী হলেন এমন একজন পূর্বনারী যার এবং মৃত ব্যক্তির মধ্যে মাতৃ সম্পর্কীয় কোন পিতামহ মধ্যবর্তী হন না। যেমন: পিতার মাতা, পিতার মাতার মাতা, পিতার পিতার মাতা, মাতার মাতা মাতার মাতার মাতা।

Certificate of Sale

Certificate of Sale

A certificate of sale is a court-issued document awarded to the winning bidder at a mortgage foreclosure auction. These kinds of certificates are unique elements of United States law, and the terms and conditions of issue of a sale certificate usually vary by state. In almost all cases, a certificate of sale entitles the bearer to take possession of the named property as of a certain date. How that date is calculated, as well as any terms of conditions that must be met before a certificate can be converted into a deed, are typically matters of local law.

Mortgages are popular ways for people to finance the purchase of a home. They are essentially long-term loans, repayable in monthly installments. In a mortgage situation, the mortgage lender, usually a bank or other financial institution, provides the money upfront to buy the house in exchange for a lien on the title. If payments are missed, the lender can foreclose in order to recoup the remainder of its initial investment. Selling the mortgaged property in a foreclosure sale is one way for a lender to raise these funds.
Foreclosure sales are usually conducted by the courts, or by a county sheriff closely affiliated with the courts. Most of the time, sale is by public auction. The highest bidder must usually be able to pay the winning bid price in cash at the time of the auction, or within a finite period of time thereafter. If the bidder comes up with the money to back his bid, he is issued a certificate of sale.

The certificate does not usually entitle the bidder to take immediate possession of the premises, nor does it establish ownership as would a deed or land title. Rather, it simply indicates that the property has been sold, and that the bidder is first in line to claim it. The bidder must usually wait until the court and the mortgagor settle the final terms of the transfer in order to assume physical ownership. Legal documents solidifying that ownership will come once those settlements have been made.

A certificate of title can, in some places, be overcome by an original owner’s right of redemption. Some states grant original owners a certain amount of time after a foreclosure to remedy the problem, and come up with the money to pay back the mortgagor. This is known as a “right of redemption.” Not all states have rights of redemption, but in those that do, the amount of grace time can run from a few weeks to a few years. A lengthy right of redemption can make owning a certificate of sale a risky investment.

It is important to distinguish a certificate of sale from a certificate of retail sale, which pertains to taxes, and a bill of sale, which pertains to direct ownership transfer. Certificates of retail sale are issued by retailers, primarily car dealers, at the point of sale. They are usually designed to prove that sales tax was paid on the purchase price. A bill of sale is essentially a title transfer instrument through which an owner transfers outright ownership to another by passing on the property’s title. Certificates of sale, on the other hand, are unique to the mortgage and foreclosure space.

Foreign Exchanges

Foreign Exchanges

Introduction :

4.0 Foreign Exchange

Foreign Exchange refers to the process or mechanism by which the currency of one country is converted into the currency of another country.

In accordance with banks, Foreign exchange refers to the general mechanism by which a bank converts currency of one country into that of another. Foreign trade gives rise to foreign exchange. Foreign trade is transacted either in the currency of the exporter’s country or that of the importer’s country or that of a third country acceptable to both the exporter and the importer.

Foreign Exchange department is divided into two parts. The first part is the export department and the second is the import department.

4.1. Fundamentals of Foreign Exchange     

 

There are 3 fundamental aspects of the general mechanism of Foreign Exchange:

1. Every country has its own currency-legal tender/distinctive unit of account.

2. Banks by bookkeeping entry carried out in the two centers concerned effect the conversion of one currency into another.

3. These exchanges are affected by means of credit instruments viz. Draft, Mail Transfer, Telegraphic Transfer etc.

4.2. Exchange Control

Whenever a country faces a mounting pressure on its balance of payments position, it may impose various forms of restrictions or controls on payments and receipts in foreign exchange and also on the imports and exports of goods and services.

The objectives of exchange control are-

1. To ensure that the receipts from exports of goods and services from Bangladesh are: surrendered to a central pool.

2. To oversee use of foreign exchange resources in accordance with priorities determined by the government.

A . EXPORT

When any organization wants to export any product to other country than that particular organization usually opens an export L/C from this department.

4.3.  Foreign exchange Operation :( Export financing)

Export means any person lawfully exporting goods from Bangladesh to any other country after shipment the exporter has to tender the documents to the Bank within the stipulated period for the negotiation of the documents are drawn under a letter of Credit. If require, finance the duty drawback and cash compensatory support claims of the exporter.

Packing credit means any loan or advance grated or any other credit provided by an institution to the exporter for financing the purchase, processing or packaging or goods on the basis of L/C.

4.4.  Duty Draw Back:

An export of manufactured products is entitled to draw back the value customer’s duties, sales tax etc. already paid on the importation of raw material in the production or manufacture of the products.

1. Export Credit Guarantee Scheme

2. Confessional Rate of Import Duty

3. Income Tax Rebate

4. Retention Quota

5. Traveling Facilities.

                      

4.5   Export Formalities

There is certain formalities involved exporting such as maintaining the books register, L/C checking etc.

1) Procedure of Registration of Exporter.

2) Books and Register/ Ledger required for export

3) B.B.Bill checking/ Lodgments.

4) Export document checking and negotiation/ collection basis

5) Pre- shipment financing

6) Disposal of EXP forms

7) Export Incentives

8) Disputes and settlement of Export claim.

4.6 Procedure for obtaining Export Registration Certificate

   (ERC)

For obtaining export registration certificate form CCI & E, the following documents are required.

1) Application form

2) Nationality Certificate

3) Partnership deed (registered)

4) Memorandum & Article of Association and Incorporation Certificate

5) Bank Certificate

6) Valid Trade License

7) Copy of rent of the business firm.

4.7.  Preparation of Export Documents

1) Bill of Exchange or Draft

2) Commercial Invoice

3) Bill of Lading

4) Inspection Certificate

5) Packing list          

6) Export License

7) Shipment Advice

8) Certificate of Origin

9) Weight Certificate

10) EXP form

11) DHL Courier Receipt

4.8 Export Documents Checking

General Verification:

a) L/C registers or not

b) Exporters submitted documents before expiry date of the credit

c) Shortage of documents etc.

4.9 Sanction of Pre- Shipment

The part is to apply the Bank. On receipt of the application Pre- shipment, section will start security of the application.

Type of pre-shipment: whether clean/pledge/ hypothecation of goods.

a. Whether the investment is within Bangladesh Bank credit restriction.

b. What is the purpose of the investment?

c. Whether the goods specified for finance is eligible for export under control rule.

d. How the PSI A/C will be adjusted.

f. Disbursement

g. Execution of documents

h. Lien mark on Master L/C

B. IMPORT:

When any organization wants to import any product other country than the particular organization usually opens an import L/C from this department.

4.10.  Import of goods by letter of Credit

A letter of credit is a conditional Bank Undertaking of Payment. Credit is a letter form the importer Banker to the exporter that the bills if drawn as per terms and conditions are complied with will be honored on presentation.

Following papers are to be submitted by the importer before opening of the L/C

a) Trade license

b) Import Registration Certificate.

c) Income Tax Declaration with TIN

d) Membership Certificate

e) Memorandum of Article

f) Registered Deed

g) Resolution

h) Photographs           

i) VAT Registration.

Bank will supply the following papers/documents before opening of the L/C:

a) L/C application

b) LCAF

c) IMP

d) TM Form

e) Charge Documents

f) Guarantee Form

The above papers /documents must be completed dully filled and signed by the party and to be verified the signature.

4.11.  Checking of Documents

 Before lodgment, documents must be checked with L/C file. Check-up as under.

a) Invoice

b) Bill of lading

c) Draft

d) Bank forwarding date

4.12  Lodgment of the Document

Documents must be lodged within 7 days and examine the same whether document in order or not.

The exporters of Bangladesh follow the whole procedure. Necessary papers that the exporter sends with the shipment are:

a) Commercial Invoice

b) Packing list

c) Bill of Leading

d) Certificate of original goods

e) Weight and measurement list

f) Other paper that the importer asked.

                                      

4.13 Letter of Credit (L/C)

L/C is the most important thing for doing any sort of foreign business. There is no guaranteed relation between importer and exporter. As a result they use a media to secure their goods and currency. So, exporter and importers use their respective banks as a media and L/C is a legal obligation between the exporter and importer. It is necessary to fill up following forms.

a) LCF form

b) Application and agreement for confirmed irrevocable without resource to drawer’s letter of credit

c) Letter of credit authorization form

d) Form of IMP (importer) and EXP (exporter)

                  

4.13.1.  Classification of L/C

1. Revocable L/C

2. Irrevocable L/C

3. Transferable L/C

4. Confirmed and Unconfirmed L/C

5. Non-revolving L/C

6. Revolving L/C       

1. Revocable L/C

This type of credit can be revoked or cancel at any time without the consent of, or notice of the beneficiary. A revocable credit may be amended or cancelled by the issuing bank at any moment and without prior notice to the Beneficiary.

2. Irrevocable L/C

The Irrevocable credit is a commonly used type of documentary credit. The credits which can not be revoked varied or change/amended without the consent of all parties- buyer (applicant), seller (Beneficiary) Issuing Bank and confirming Bank (in case of confirmed LC).

3. Transferable L/C

The Original beneficiary when request the banker in writing to effect transfer the L/C to the secondary beneficiary, the signature of the original beneficiary on the letter of request must be verified by his banker. The L/C can be transferred only the terms and conditions specified in the original credit.

4. Confirmed and Unconfirmed L/C

A confirmed credit is one that has been confirmed by the advising bank. The bank issuing the credit sends the credit through his branch or correspondent bank located in the beneficiary’s country with a request to add its confirmation to the credit. If the advising bank adds its confirmation to the credit, it becomes a confirming bank and the credit is a confirmed credit. Confirmation constitutes a definite and legal undertaking on the part of the confirming bank that it will duly honor the payment or acceptance, as the case may be, on presentation of the stipulated documents provided the terms and conditions of the credit are satisfied.

5. Non-revolving L/C

A Non-revolving Credit is one in which the limit is reduced permanently to the extent of bills drawn under the credit. In this case, both the amount and the period of availability are fixed, and when either the time is expired or the amount is exhausted the facility comes to an end.

6. Revolving L/C

Banks to fulfill the special requirements of the importers who require regular and continuous payments to their suppliers issue Revolving Credits.

4.13.2  Back-to-Back Letter of Credit

Under this arrangement the bank finances export business by opening a letter of credit on behalf of the exporter who has received a letter of credit form the overseas buyer but is not the actual manufacturer of producer of the exportable goods. The letter of credit opened in favor of the actual producer or supplier within or outside the country. Since the second letter of credit is opened on the strength of and backed by another letter of credit it is called “Back to Back” credit. The back-to-back letter of credit must conform to the terms and conditions of the original letter of credit with the following exceptions:

1. Name of the original beneficiary shall be substituted by that of the actual supplier.

2. The credit amount shall normally be lower than that of the original letter of credit.

3. The back to back letter of credit shall be made valid for shipment and negotiation prior to expiry of the corresponding date.

4.13.3.  Processing and opening of BTB L/C

An exporter desired to have an import L/C limit under Back to Back arrangement. In that case the following papers & documents are required:

a) Full particulars of bank account.

b) Balance Sheet

c) Statement of Assets & liability.

d) Trade License.

e) Valid Bonded Warehouse License

f) Membership Certificate

g) Income Tax Declaration

h) Memorandum of Article

i) Partnership Deed.

j) Resolution

k) Photographs of all Directors.

On receipt of above documents and papers the Bank to Back L/C opening section will prepare a credit report. Branch must obtain sanction from Head office for opening Back-to-Back L/C.

4.14.  Opening of Letter of Credit

Opening of Letter of Credit means, at the request of the applicant (importer) issuance of an L/C in favor of the beneficiary (exporter) by a bank. The bank, which open or issue L/C is called L/C opening bank or issuing bank.     

4.15.  Before Opening an L/C, the issuing Bank must check the following:

1. L/C application properly stamped, signature verified and margin approved and properly retained.

2. Indent/ Proforma Invoice signed by the Importer and Indentor/Supplier.

3. Ensure that the relevant particulars of L/C application correspond with those stipulated in Indent / Proforma Invoice.

4. Validity of LCA entitlement of goods, amount etc. conforms to the L/C application.

5Conversion and rate of exchange correctly applied.

6. Charges like commission, F.C.C.Postage, telex charge, if any recovered.

7. Insurance Cover Note – in the name of issuing Bank-A/C importer covering required Risk and voyage route.

8. Incorporation of instructions for negotiating bank as per bank’s existing arrangement.

9. Reimbursement instructions for Reimbursing Bank.

10. If add confirmation is required on account of the applicant- charge should be Recovered form the applicant.

11. In case of usence L/C, mention rate of interest clearly in the Letter of credit.

4.16.  Parties to a Letter of Credit                               

Letter of Credit signifies a commitment on behalf of the buyer (importer) given by the buyer’s bank to effect payment to the seller (exporter) subject to fulfillment of certain conditions by the seller specified in the credit. The importer, the exporter and the issuing bank are, thus, obviously parties to a letter of credit. A number of other parties are also involved in a Letter of Credit and the rights and obligations of the different parties involved in the deal will also differ from each other. Usually the following parties are involved in the Letter of Credit.

a. Applicant or Buyer (Importer)

b. Beneficiary or Seller (Exporter)

c. Issuing Bank (Opening Bank)

d. Nominated Bank (intermediary bank) which may be:

e. Advising bank/Notifying bank

f. Confirming bank             

g. Negotiating bank

h. Accepting bank

i. Paying bank

j. Reimbursing bank

4.17.  Papers to Be Submitted By the Importer before L/C Opening

The importer must submit the following papers along with the L/C application before opening the letter of credit:

Import License/Authorization form or Import Registration Certificate as the case may be.

a. TIN Certificate

b. VAT Registration Certificate

c. Indent/Performa Invoice

d. Insurance cover note

e. IMP forms and other documents/papers etc.

4.18.  Procedure of opening L/C

Application

 

Insurance Coverage

Payment

IMF (import form) or EXF (export) form) (export)))))form)

LCF (letter of credit authorization form)

Performa Invoice

TIN Certificate

4.19.  Shipment of Consignment and Lodgment of Documents

There are two types of exporter

a). Merchant/Trade Exporter

b). Manufacturer Exporter

If the supplier is a merchant exporter, he will immediately start packing and shipping the goods. If he is a manufacturer exporter, he will start manufacturing the item. In either case, he will ship the goods when ready and obtain full set of Bill of Lading etc. from the carrier company and submit the same to the negotiating bank along with other documents that are called for in the credit. The shipping documents usually obtained are:

a. Bill of Lading or Air Consignment Note or Post Parcel Receipt or Truck Receipt.

b. Bill of Exchange

c. Commercial Invoice

d. Certificate of Origin

e. Packing List

f. Weight Certificate

g. Consular Invoice, where necessary

h. A copy of declaration of shipment made to the Insurance Company (to be submitted with original shipping documents)

i. Pre-shipment inspection certificate from internationally reputed surveyor.

j. Analysis certificate where specification of commodity is given.

If the credit is unrestricted, then the beneficiary can go to any bank for the purpose of negotiating his documents. Usually they go to their own bankers. If the credit is restricted, then the beneficiary gets his documents collected through his banker who forwards documents to that banker to whom negotiations are restricted.

4.20.  Discrepancies in Shipping Documents

The usual discrepancies found are:

1. L/C expired;

2. Late shipment;

3. Amount drawn in excess of the letter of credit;

4. Bill of Exchange not properly drawn;

5. Description of goods differ;

6. Interest clause is missing in Bill of Exchange, where stipulated;

7. Bill of Exchange is not drawn/signed by the beneficiary of the credit;

8. Bill of Lading or Airway Bill stale;

9. Bill of Lading “Clause”; Full set of B/L not submitted, Or

10. B/L not properly signed and submitted;

11. Bill of Lading is not manually signed by the master or an authorized agent of the shipping company;

12. Bill of Lading indicates that goods are carried on deck;

13. Bill of Lading is issued under a charter party.